His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however. The following day, 14 September,[71] the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of pontifex maximus, and the titles of Augustus ("venerable"), and Pater Patriae ("father of the country"). After his death, Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Senate, while senatorial and equestrian authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger, and Suetonius propagated the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. [118] Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. In October/November 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted,[67] burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted three days and destroyed a number of important public buildings. [29], According to Suetonius, Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature, and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors. [200] His economic program, which was rigorously efficient, maintained the Roman currency at a standard it would never again achieve. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. [99] Domitian himself supported the travel of competitors from all corners of the Empire to Rome and distributed the prizes. Domitian's government exhibited strong authoritarian characteristics. [145] Suetonius mentions having seen in his youth a nonagenarian being stripped by a procurator to see if he was circumcised. His harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed. [66] Ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder,[69] or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead,[60][70] even alleging that during his lifetime, Domitian was openly plotting against his brother. Stephanus, who had been feigning an injury to his arm for several days and wearing a bandage to allow him to carry a concealed dagger, suddenly appeared: he pretended that he had discovered a plot, and was for that reason granted an audience: whereupon, as the amazed Domitian perused a document he had handed him, Stephanus stabbed him in the groin. [60], Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. [102][107] While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned. [105][106] Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaignsmore than any emperor since Augustusand raising their pay by one-third. [192] The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117138). [66], Two major disasters struck during 79 and 80. [116] Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the Kingdom of Dacia in the East. Definition. [77] Using religious, military and cultural propaganda, he fostered a cult of personality. Emperors. The results were remarkably successful. [138], Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected. [190] Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed. Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost. Trajan, Latin in full Caesar Divi Nervae Filius Nerva Traianus Optimus Augustus, also called (97-98 CE) Caesar Nerva Traianus Germanicus, original name Marcus Ulpius Traianus, (born September 15?, 53 ce, Italica, Baetica [now in Spain]died August 8/9, 117, Selinus, Cilicia [now in Turkey]), Roman emperor (98-117 ce) who sought to extend the bou. However, over time, the view of Domitian has shifted. [32] Support for the old emperor waned as more legions around the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. [42] The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions. [151] Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors. [186] Domitian and, over a century later, Publius Septimius Geta were the only emperors known to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. [114], Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the River Forth into Caledonia. [201], He became personally involved in all branches of the government and successfully prosecuted corruption among public officials. This is a chronologically ordered list of Roman emperors. He deified three of his family members and erected massive structures to commemorate the Flavian achievements. [53] It is not known whether Domitian had other children, but he did not marry again. Marcus Cocceius Nerva. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavian dynasty. As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. As Emperor, he saw himself as the new Augustus, an enlightened despot destined to guide the Roman Empire into a new era of Flavian renaissance. ", Anderson, J. C. 1985. He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90% to 98% the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87grams to 3.26grams. (imp. A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69. [10] One such family, the Flavians, or Flavia gens, rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. [78] According to Suetonius, the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials. She was also a granddaughter of Junia Lepida, a descendant of Emperor Augustus. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva, which allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material. Ancient portrait of Roman emperor Domitian (r. 81-96 C.E.) The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus. In later life he had the further disfigurement of baldness, a protruding belly, and spindling legs, though the latter had become thin from a long illness. 147S. Murdered on 18 September AD 96. Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague. He was handsome and graceful too, especially when a young man, and indeed in his whole body with the exception of his feet, the toes of which were somewhat cramped. Epictetus, who had set himself up in Rome as a professor of philosophy, remarked that philosophers were able to "look tyrants steadily in the face",[140] and it was Domitian's decree of 94, expelling all philosophers from Rome, that caused Epictetus to shift his base to the recently founded Roman city of Nicopolis, in Epirus, Greece, where he lived simply, worked safely and died of old age. [127][128] However, not only did he reject the title of Dominus during his reign,[129][130] but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect, historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from him. Titus had gained military renown during the First JewishRoman War. [24], Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120kilometres (75mi) further south. The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland. After the demise of Domitian, Rome came under the rule of beneficent and wise leaders commonly referred to as the "Five Good Emperors.". A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04grams respectively. [9] Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century. Domitian (51-86 AD), is viewed as one of the most tyrannical Emperors in Roman history. Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. [83], In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces. [48] By 84, Domitia had returned to the palace,[51] where she lived for the remainder of Domitian's reign without incident. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters. DOMITIANI F. "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. P. M. / DIVUS CAESAR MP. In fact, on the day before he was murdered. The Crossword Solver finds answers to classic crosswords and cryptic crossword puzzles. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. Nerva faced the soldiers, offering his own life by baring his neck to their swords. He then commanded all the lineage of David be put to death. Juvenal savagely satirized the Domitianic court in his Satires, depicting the Emperor and his entourage as corrupt, violent and unjust. Domitian (51-86 AD), is viewed as one of the most tyrannical Emperors in Roman history. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard.[148]. Nerva and Trajan (ruled 96 98 AD, 98 117 AD) were not born to rule, but were chosen for the job. Accordingly, those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive. [195] Nevertheless, the account of Suetonius has dominated imperial historiography for centuries. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. Mar 22, 2022 By Kieren Johns, PhD Classics & Ancient History Panel A of the Cancelleria Reliefs, depicting Mars and Minerva with Domitian, 81-96 CE, via Musei Vaticani; with an aureus of Domitian, 77-8 CE, via British Museum Late in the 1st century CE, an atmosphere of fear and mistrust clouded the palace atop the Palatine hill in Rome. Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul. Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions, led by Gaius Julius Civilis, had rebelled with the aid of a faction of Treveri under the command of Julius Classicus. [53] The precise involvement of the Praetorian Guard is unclear. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination. Lastly, he added two new factions to the chariot races, Gold and Purple, to race against the existing White, Red, Green and Blue factions. Domitian (/dmn, -in/; Latin: Domitianus; 24 October 51 18 September 96) was Roman emperor from 81 to 96. [101] His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Emperor Domitian 's (r. 81-96 CE) Dacian campaigns in 86-87 CE reached an uneasy peace, but the conflict was renewed under the reign of Emperor Trajan (r. 98-117 CE). [19][20] He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature. [154] He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate to reduce its control to an administrative one, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state. Married Domitia Longina (no children). [33] News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. His cartouche also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of Khnum at Esna. His Rise To Power [101] Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. [68] Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coordinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. But much remains to be done. Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during Titus' brief reign. [8] He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus. Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. Click the answer to find similar crossword clues . His will broken, he died soon afterwards. [13] Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (4154) and his son Britannicus. [105] The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile. He punished libel with exile or death and, due to his suspicious nature, increasingly accepted information from informers to bring false charges of treason if necessary. Domitian became Emperor in 81 AD Domitian was the son of emperor Vespasian (69-79). [108], Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman EmpireGalba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasiansuccessively vied for imperial power. [61], In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign. At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. [108] The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. When Vespasian died in 79, he was succeeded by his eldest son, Titus. [132] Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care. [84], For his personal use, he was active in constructing many monumental buildings, including the Villa of Domitian, a vast and sumptuous palace situated 20km outside Rome in the Alban Hills. Domitian's elder brother Titus succeeded Vespasian first, but died barely two years later. Among those completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus and the Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum), to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area. Significant wars were fought in Britain, where his general Agricola attempted to conquer Caledonia (Scotland), and in Dacia, where Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus. As a result, he was always restless around that time. [155][156], The dislike was mutual. His eyes were large, but his sight was somewhat dim. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. [44] When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours. Promises, promises He was the son of Vespasian, and the younger brother of Titus, whom he succeeded as emperor. [12] Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,[7] even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (3741) and Nero (5468). [29] Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. One of the guard's commanders, Titus Petronius Secundus, was almost certainly aware of the plot. [101] By nominating himself perpetual censor, he sought to control public and private morals. Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror. According to Suetonius, Domitia Longina was exiled in 83 because of an affair with a famous actor named Paris. "It's a terrible thing to be an emperor," Domitian said, "because everything thinks your paranoia about being assassinated is . Philosophers did not fare much better. [110] Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",[111] and a "mock triumph". Roman Emperor Domitian is remembered for only one joke. [187] Yet the order of the Senate was only partially executed in Rome, and wholly disregarded in most of the provinces outside Italy. Younger son of Vespasian and Flavia Domitilla. He was the third and last of the Flavian emperors after his father Vespasian and his brother Titus. [66] Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little sympathy when his brother lay dying, instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor. Height 2.03 m. Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering that Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven. [158] Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained. [61] Yet the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both militarily and politically. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. Caligula) and Nero. He had ruled between 69 and 79 AD and achieved a reputation for shrewd management in contrast to his profligate predecessor Nero. In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia,[46] but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself. [36] Vespasian accepted and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti. Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86. [178][169], The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that on the same day as Domitian's assassination, the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-law Quintus Petillius Cerialis. Domitian had a minor and largely ceremonial role during the reigns of his father and brother. [102] Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modern Scotland). [134] Subsequent emperors made similar prohibitions, but Domitian may have been the first to do so. [59] The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives. During the JewishRoman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian. [182] On the other hand, Nerva lacked widespread support in the Empire, and as a known Flavian loyalist, his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators. Photo: Dan Diffendale/CC BY-SA 2.0. He concludes that Domitian was a ruthless but efficient autocrat. The work of Domitian's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign. [185] The Senate nonetheless rejoiced at the death of Domitian, and immediately following Nerva's accession as Emperor, passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian's memory; his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records. [202] Despite his vilification by contemporary historians, Domitian's administration provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. [121] For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses. [154] Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Mother. Though he remained unharmed. [165], Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 in a conspiracy by court officials. [102] Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians.[103]. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Tacitus' major historical works, including The Histories and Agricola's biography, were all written and published under Domitian's successors, Nerva (9698) and Trajan (98117). Enter a Crossword Clue Sort by Length # of Letters or Pattern Late in life, Domitian become very superstitious. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. EPM. [126] Fourth century writings by Eusebius maintain that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign. Sergia Plautilla. Domitian's reign came to an end in 96 when he was assassinated by court officials. Trajan, in military clothes, in the Xanten Archaeological Park. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, which may have stemmed from his isolated upbringing.[19][who?] Nevertheless, Tacitus admits his debt to the Flavians with regard to his own public career. [77], Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. [118] The loss of the battle standard, or aquila, was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride. [112] He fortified the coast facing Ireland,[citation needed] and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He held six consulships during Vespasian's reign but only one of these, in 73, was an ordinary consulship. His reign is notable for peace and stability, but at the same time for fear and paranoia. [140] In 87, Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from his. [146], On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people. [52] Little is known of Domitia's activities as empress, or how much influence she wielded in Domitian's government, but it seems her role was limited. Jan 27, 98 (aged 67) Gardens of Sallust, Rome, Italy. 1. Emperor Trajan led the Roman Empire from 98 to 117 AD, and played an important role in maintaining and expanding the Roman Empire. [8], Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. [24][25] A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality: He was tall of stature, with a modest expression and a high colour. [165] Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. [193] The biography is problematic, however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine. [149] Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the province of Syria, a second consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood, which he still held in 102. Whether he received formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow. [113] In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. DOMITIANVS AVG. [103] Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus. [154] Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. Persecution of religious minorities, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives.[19]. Dom. [115] Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control. His father, the first of the Flavian dynasty, had come to power largely by accident in the political vacuum and subsequent civil war that followed Nero's suicide in 68 AD. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero. Domitian (Oct. 24, AD 51Sept. Definition. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic withdrawal of troops in the British province. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa Province in 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66. Instead, connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated. [173] Apparently put at ease, the Emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees. [82] The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital. As a consequence, Domitian was popular with the people and the army, but considered a tyrant by members of the Roman Senate. Domitian managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters, Cornelius Primus. In 86 he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot racing, and competitions for oratory, music and acting. He was succeeded the same day by his advisor Nerva. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. He appears, together with Trajan, in offering scenes on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. [100], The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. [70] It is difficult to assess the factual veracity of these statements given the known bias of the surviving sources. [159][160] At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed,[161] including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. [75] In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority. CAES. The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign. [19] Unlike his brother Titus, Domitian was not educated at court. He received the title of Caesar and was appointed praetor with consular power. He was the son of Emperor Vespasian and the brother of Titus, the conquerors of Jerusalem in AD 70. [24] Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting he hand over command of his army but, once again, he was snubbed. He immediately promised an end to the tyranny of Domitians rule, swearing that he would never execute any senator, whatever the provocation. [43] Domitian's authority was merely nominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. [6] His foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest. [96] Among the most important new structures were an odeon, a stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian. [93] Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically. Despite this, he managed to achieve a great deal during his reign, including expanding the empire's borders and strengthening its economy. Domitian was ultimately assassinated in 96AD by a member of the imperial staff (Suet. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome. Seven other villas are linked with Domitian at Tusculum, Antium, Sabaudia, Vicarello, Caieta, Terracina[87] and Baiae. [11], The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor, and culminated in a consulship in 51, the year of Domitian's birth. The dark side of his censorial power involved a restriction in freedom of speech, and an increasingly oppressive attitude toward the Roman Senate. Domitian was Roman Emperor from 81 to 96 CE and his reign, although one of relative peace and stability, became engulfed in both fear and paranoia. [40], During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. He had a lifetime of service to Rome and its emperors, and had served as consul twice, in 71 and 90 AD. Despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce, the marriage appears to have been happy. Nerva was the first emperor in the line of the Five Good Emperors of Rome. [42], Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's entourage, promoting away Flavian generals such as Arrius Varus and Antonius Primus and replacing them with more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens. The Adoptive Emperors. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour,[30][31] and often communicated in cryptic ways. He was the third and last member of the Flavian dynasty. His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola. Here are 10 facts about emperor Domitian. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. [88] Only that at Sabaudia has been positively identified. [89], The Stadium of Domitian was dedicated in 86 AD as a gift to the people of Rome as part of an Imperial building program, following the damage or destruction of most of the buildings on the Field of Mars by fire in 79 AD. In the Roman Forum. Unfortunately, the part of Tacitus' Histories dealing with the reign of the Flavian dynasty is almost entirely lost. [8] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Domitian's grandfather. This promise was soon stretched to its limits. [95], Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1.2 billion sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized the provinces, leading to several local uprisings such as the Batavian revolt in Gaul. The other five were less prestigious suffect consulships, which he held in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother in mid-January. [96] Much more than a renovation project, Domitian's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. [157] Furthermore, contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote down the information on his reign after it had ended, and his memory had been condemned to oblivion by the Senate. Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory, praising Domitian's achievements as equalling those of the gods. [188] As a compensation measure, the Praetorian Guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused. The governor of Germania Inferior, Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by Titus Flavius Norbanus, the procurator of Rhaetia. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion. Roman Emperor Domitian, Louvre. Enter the length or pattern for better results. [11] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). Domitian was one of the emperors during the Flavian Dynasty. KAIAP OMITIANO EB. [113] He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion: He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate, since when they discovered a conspiracy, no one believed them unless they had been murdered. Historical sources from the Roman era painted him as a vicious tyrant. [6] The first of these was Jones' 1992 The Emperor Domitian. Nerva & Trajan | PBS Bust of Nerva the Emperor Domitian's murder marked the end of the Flavian dynasty and changed the rules of succession. After their father Vespasian became emperor in 69 following the civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, Titus held a great many offices, while Domitian received honours, but no responsibilities. Veneration of Serapis and Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year. Became emperor in 14 September AD 81. [72], As emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign. [169] According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death. [40] The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire. [125] The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was Minerva. [179] Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. [119], The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. [73] Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, the imperial court was situated at Alba or Circeii, and sometimes even farther afield. . The wounded Emperor put up a fight, but succumbed to seven further stabs, his assailants being a subaltern named Clodianus, Parthenius's freedman Maximus, Satur, a head-chamberlain and one of the imperial gladiators. The soldiers just laughed and went on to kill many of his friends and allies. He had two older siblings: Titus Flavius Vespianus and Domitilla the Younger. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and was given command of the Praetorian Guard; powers that left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire. Despite a literary tradition that associated Domitian with Flavian poverty, the family's status remained high throughout his early years: Vespasian was appointed to the prestigious proconsulship of North Africa in A.D. 59 . The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. set into a bust by Guglielmo della Porta (16th c. Although Titus had a reputation for ruthlessness . Domitian's government nonetheless exhibited totalitarian characteristics. Titus Flavius Domitianius was the younger son of Vespasian and Flavia Domitilla, born in AD 51 at Rome. By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank. [41], Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. [17] By the time he was 16 years old, Domitian's mother and sister had long since died,[18] while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavian dynasty. [36] A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. [179], The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war, but neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy. Seeking revenge, the Praetorian Guard stormed the palace and demanded that those responsible be executed. Caption: IMP. He was known for his harshness, his love of luxury, and his scandalous behavior. [78] He ensured that libellous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death. On 24 October 69, the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian (under Marcus Antonius Primus) met at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64, the civil war of 69 and the fire in 80. As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community, this offense essentially constituted incest. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of Tettius Julianus, and finally defeated Decebalus in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished. [32], On 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. He was the younger and the clearly less favoured son of Vespasian who cared much more for his heir Titus. Among the emperors who suffered damnatio memoriae are some of the best-known figures from Roman history, including Gaius (a.k.a. His death at the hands of those who were closest to him brought an end to the short dynasty of the Flavians and it was those emperors who would follow, at least for the next one hundred years, who would see a rebirth of some of the grandeur and . Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51,[7] the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianuscommonly known as Vespasianand Flavia Domitilla Major. Introduction. Other passages, alluding to Domitian's love of epigrammatic expression, suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers, while he also patronized poets and architects, founded artistic Olympics, and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down. The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire from the granting of the name and title Augustus to Octavian by the Roman Senate in 27 BC onward. [23] Among his first published works were poetry, as well as writings on law and administration. [196] In his biographical work Agricola, Tacitus maintains that Agricola was forced into retirement because his triumph over the Caledonians highlighted Domitian's own inadequacy as a military commander. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games such as naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. [16], Of the three Flavian emperors, Domitian would rule the longest, despite the fact that his youth and early career were largely spent in the shadow of his older brother. Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents, with Tituswho had completed his military education by this timein charge of a legion. Astonishingly, Nerva thanked them for carrying out justice, but he had been badly humiliated. [34], Otho and Vitellius realized the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. [38] In despair, Vitellius attempted to negotiate a surrender. [40] By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. [190] He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians. The emperor Domitian, who was naturally inclined to cruelty, first slew his brother, and then raised the second persecution against the Christians. His De vita Caesarum is the source of much of what is known of Domitian. [76] To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus. [16] Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high but so long as either Galba or Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. Life: 51 - 96 A.D. [35] When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. [56][57] The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved. [113], Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania. [93] The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of Rome. Around noon, Domitian, just one month short of his 45th birthday, was dead. Domitian ( / dmn, - in /; Latin: Domitianus; 24 October 51 - 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter,[76] perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. Trajan continued Domitian's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. [103] Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence,[104] the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day Azerbaijan. With nothing more to be feared, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. He alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius played the main role in the plot, and historian John Grainger cites Parthenius' likely fear over Domitian's recent execution of Nero's former secretary Epaphroditus as a possible motive. C.E.) As had been foretold, his death came at midday. 18, AD 96), was Roman Emperor from AD 8196. [166] A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius. caesar Domitianus Avg. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war. [148] Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect but since he considered Domitian a liability in any capacity that was entrusted to him, he preferred to keep him close at hand rather than in Rome. [139] Consequently, he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public. When the popular Titus died at the untimely age of forty-two, after only two years and a few months as emperor, he was succeeded by his thirty-year-old brother Domitian whom neither Titus, nor their father Vespasian, had expected to be called to the task. [135] Despite his moralizing, Domitian had his own favorite eunuch boy, Earinus,[136][137] who was commemorated by the contemporary court poets Martial and Statius. [45], Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. [64] Real power was unmistakably concentrated in the hands of the Flavian faction; the weakened Senate only maintained the facade of democracy. Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October A.D. 51, the youngest son of Vespasian, Roman emperor (A.D. 69-79) and Domitilla I, a treasury clerk's daughter. Significantly, his first act as emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. 17). [74] According to Pliny the Younger, Domitian believed that the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head. [141], Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. [62] As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those of augur, pontifex, frater arvalis, magister frater arvalium, and sacerdos collegiorum omnium,[63] but no office with imperium. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol and in a skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. [102], The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus. [54][194], Modern historians consider this highly implausible however, noting that malicious rumours such as those concerning Domitia's alleged infidelity were eagerly repeated by post-Domitianic authors, and used to highlight the hypocrisy of a ruler publicly preaching a return to Augustan morals, while privately indulging in excesses and presiding over a corrupt court. 1,294 likes, 10 comments - Anonymous Works (@anonymousworksinc) on Instagram: "Bust of ''Julia - Daughter of Titus'' Julia Titi was the daughter of the Roman emperor Titus, wh." Anonymous Works on Instagram: "Bust of ''Julia - Daughter of Titus'' Julia Titi was the daughter of the Roman emperor Titus, who ruled during the Flavian dynasty from . Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat. [73] By moving the centre of government to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. Domitian's body was carried away on a common bier and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis. 182188, M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187, Werner Eck Andreas Pangerl, Titus Flavius Norbanus, praefectus praetorio Domitians, als Statthalter Rtiens in einem neuen Militrdiplom, ZPE 163, 2007, 239251, His article begins with "The work of the spade and the use of common sense have done much to mitigate the influence of Tacitus and Pliny and redeem the memory of Domitian from infamy or oblivion. When he met his violent end in AD 96, subsequent writers did everything they could to demolish his reputation, but during his reign between AD 81 and 96, this last ruler of the Flavian dynasty presented his own image of himself. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines. Nerva became emperor immediately after Domitians murder in 96 AD. Domitian was not so subtle, often coming to the Senate as a triumpher and conqueror to show his distain for them. 8, 3", "Earinus, Emperor Domitian, and laws against castration", "Earinus the Eunuch: Martial (from Book 9) and Statius (Silvae 3.4)", "Domitian: Misery of Absolutism and Splendor of Rome", Bibliothque des coles franaises d'Athnes et de Rome, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domitian&oldid=1157573741, This page was last edited on 29 May 2023, at 14:33. Legend reads: AYTO. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. [142][143] The Book of Revelation and First Epistle of Clement are thought by some to have been written during this period, the latter making mention of "sudden and repeated misfortunes", which are assumed to refer to persecutions under Domitian. [198] Other influential 2nd century authors include Juvenal and Pliny the Younger, the latter of whom was a friend of Tacitus and in 100 delivered his famous Panegyricus Traiani before Trajan and the Roman Senate, exalting the new era of restored freedom while condemning Domitian as a tyrant. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function. [91][92], Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. Indeed, by the age of eighteen nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. In the aftermath of the civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors, Rome's old aristocracy gave rise to a new set of Italian families to take power. Domitian also founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti. The Germanic soothsayer Larginus Proclus predicted the date of Domitian's death and was consequently sentenced to death by him.[170][171]. Domitian and Stephanus wrestled on the ground for some time, until the Emperor was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators; Stephanus was stabbed by Domitian during the struggle and died shortly afterward. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish. Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian as Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. It was Rome's first permanent venue for competitive athletics, and is today occupied by the Piazza Navona. [164], Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor Claudius (4154), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history. Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. On 13 September 81, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories. He came into power after the Flavian dynasty and was viewed as a temporary emperor to rule over Rome following Domitian's assassination. The precise facts have been obscured by history,[184] but modern historians believe Nerva was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke. Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor, and with this decision nearly abdicated. Elaborate triumphs were celebrated in order to boost his image as a warrior-emperor, but many of these were either unearned or premature. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos. His 15-year reign was the longest since that of Tiberius. [109] For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75kilometres (46mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places. [15] That same year Jews from the Province of Judaea revolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as the First JewishRoman War. He "assumed the purple" in 69 and brought stability to the empire. Domitian, Latin in full Caesar Domitianus Augustus, original name (until ad 81) Titus Flavius Domitianus, (born Oct. 24, ad 51died Sept. 18, ad 96, Rome [Italy]), Roman emperor ( ad 81-96), known chiefly for the reign of terror under which prominent members of the Senate lived during his last years. Domitian (Titus Flavius Caesar Domitianus Augustus) was Roman Emperor from 81 to 96 AD. [113] In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era. [63] Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Domitian was a Roman emperor who lived during the 1 st century AD. [28] With regard to Domitian's personality, however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere. [117] The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury. [180][181] According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was at least aware of the plot. Several days prior to the assassination, Minerva had appeared to the emperor in a dream. Reverse: Eagle standing on a thunderbolt, palm before, wings open, head facing right, holding wreath in its beak. Emperor Domitian, who ruled from AD 81 to 96, was one of the most controversial rulers in Roman history. Created: 18 January 2010 This article was first published in the Spring 1999 issue of Bible and Spade. [33] Before reaching Italy, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). From Suetonius, we know that she at least accompanied the Emperor to the amphitheatre, while the Jewish writer Josephus speaks of benefits he received from her. The servant, who was himself one of the plotters, lied to the emperor, telling him that it was already late in the afternoon. at the National Archaeological Museum, Naples. [147] At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. His father, Vespasian, was a Roman general who was besieging Jerusalem in 68 when Nero died and the empire was thrown into chaos. [46] Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. [162] Flavius Clemens was a cousin of Domitian, and the emperor had even designated Clemens' two young sons as his successors, calling them as "Vespasian" and "Domitian". Now he was called to higher office. As the youngest son of the emperor Vespasian, Domitian was never meant to rule the Roman Empire. With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure, both Suetonius and Cassius Dio allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of Dominus et Deus ("Lord and God"). Legend reads: ETOY NEOY EPOY ENEKATOY (new sacred year eleventh) Size: 27mm, 14.8g Reference: Prieur p. 22, no. [95] Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits. [61] To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. His body was carried away on a common bier . 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Buzz Lightyear Squishmallow 10 Inch,
R Convert 3 Column Data Frame To Matrix,
American Music Awards Tickets,
The Ridgewood Cafe Menu,
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